The Story of the Roman Denarius, Part IV

By Michael T. Shutterly for CoinWeek …..
 

* * *

The Roman Denarius: All Roads Result in Rome … and Autocracy

The fourth and ultimate stage within the growth of the Roman Republican denarius prolonged from c. 50 to 44 BCE.

Gaius Julius Caesar was consolidating his conquest of Gaul in December 50 BCE when the Senate ordered him to disband his military and return to Rome. Caesar’s conquests had made him enormously in style and exceedingly rich, however none of what he had accomplished in Gaul was authorized: the Senate had by no means licensed him to launch what was, in impact, his private conflict in opposition to the Gauls. His recognition with most of the people was additionally a serious concern: Caesar’s management of “the mob” made him a hazard to the political construction of the Roman Republic.

Caesar was confronted with a dilemma. Roman legislation prohibited provincial governors from coming into Italy with their armies (Sulla’s march on Rome had led to years of bloody civil conflict). If Caesar returned to Rome with a military utterly loyal to him, he can be topic to arrest and prosecution for treason, with the most definitely end result his exile or demise. If Caesar returned to Rome with out a military utterly loyal to him, he can be topic to arrest and prosecution for his crimes in Gaul, with the most definitely end result his exile or demise.

No matter choice Caesar made would change the Roman world.

On January 10, 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River – the border of his province – and marched on Rome. A brand new civil conflict had begun.

Caesar issued the primary coin to bear his identify someday after he crossed the Rubicon. The obverse options an elephant trampling what’s often thought-about to be a snake however is also a dragon or carnyx (the Gaulish conflict horn). The exact that means of the imagery is unsure, but it surely most likely has one thing to do with the triumph of excellent (that means Caesar) over evil (that means anybody who opposed Caesar). The reverse options emblems of Caesar’s workplace as Pontifex Maximus.

Caesar had no authorized authority to mint this coin, however, as Sulla had accomplished 33 years earlier, he minted it on his personal authority. This distinctive coin bought for $7,500 at a personal sale, however very good specimens are simply obtained for lower than $1,000.

Pompey was residing in Rome when information got here that Caesar had crossed the river. He had as soon as boasted that he might stamp his foot and 10 legions would rise to help him, however as a consequence of gout or another drawback he by no means stamped his foot; as an alternative, he and all the individuals who mattered in Rome fled to Greece.

Quickly after the primary rumors of Caesar’s actions reached Rome, the Senatorial authorities appointed Quintus Sicinius as moneyer. Sicinius rapidly struck a denarius in help of Pompey. The obverse design, that includes the goddess Fortuna Populi Romani (“Fortune of the Roman Individuals”) was aspirational, struck within the hope that Woman Fortune would smile on Pompey who had already served Rome so properly, whereas the palm department and crown on the reverse symbolized the distinction and acclaim Pompey had already earned. This coin bought for $750 in opposition to a $500 estimate at an public sale in Could 2020.

Sicinius’ cash have been the final common situation of coinage in Rome earlier than Caesar occupied town in March 49 BCE.

Pompey and his supporters continued to strike cash, however solely in provincial mints or minting operations that moved with Pompey’s troops. The primary denarius to call Pompey was struck in Greece in 49-48 BCE by Pompey’s Proquaestor (successfully Pompey’s appearing Minister of Finance), Gaius Calpurnius Piso.

The obverse design is private to Piso quite than Pompey: the Calpurnia gens (household linked by kinship) claimed descent from Calpus, a son of Numa Pompilius, the legendary second King of Rome (reigned 715-672 BCE). The reverse design of this denarius is private to Pompey: the ship’s prow refers back to the Roman naval victories Pompey gained in his conflict in opposition to the Mediterranean pirates within the early 60s BCE. Pompey’s use of the title “Proconsul” on the reverse demonstrated that he was minting cash as a licensed authorities officer – in contrast to Caesar, who was hanging cash in his identify alone. Magnus (“Nice”) was initially a nickname for Pompey, however he formally adopted it as a part of his identify. This coin bought for $1,600 in opposition to a $1,500 estimate at an public sale in January 2005.

In early 48 BCE, Caesar crossed over to Greece for the ultimate showdown with Pompey.

Caesar conclusively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus on August 9, 48 BCE. After Pompey fled to Egypt, lots of his troopers and supporters (together with Brutus) requested Caesar’s pardon and joined his forces. Pompey was murdered upon his arrival in Egypt, however his remaining forces continued to battle on, forcing Caesar to do battle in North Africa and Spain.

Good although he was in so many respects, Caesar typically made disastrously unhealthy appointments. His legate in Spain, Quintus Cassius Longinus, so abused his powers that lots of the Spanish cities turned utterly in opposition to Caesar in help of the Pompeian trigger, which was now within the fingers of Pompey’s sons, Gnaeus Pompey Junior and Sextus Pompey.

The primary cash to painting Pompey appeared in late 46 BCE, most likely struck in Corduba (trendy Cordova), the headquarters of the Pompeians. The obverse inscription is an abbreviation of GNAEUS [POMPEIUS] MAGNI IMPERATORIS FILIUS – “Son of the Army Commander [Pompey] the Nice.” This identifies Pompey’s son (filius in Latin) because the particular person liable for issuing the coin. The reverse inscription is an abbreviation of PROQUAESTOR MARCUS MINATIUS SABINUS and identifies the Pompeian lieutenant who truly struck the coin. This fairly uncommon coin bought for $3,750 at a personal sale; well-centered, well-struck examples routinely promote for costs over $15,000.

Caesar arrived in Spain in late 46 BCE and struck cash of his personal. The obverse of the one proven right here depicts the goddess Venus, from whom Caesar claimed descent. This coin bought for $2,250 in opposition to a $750 estimate at an public sale in January 2019.

The Spanish Pompeian denarii are scarce, most likely due to the quick interval through which they have been struck: mintage ended no later than March 17, 45 BCE, when Caesar crushed the Pompeian military at Munda and massacred the survivors. With Caesar’s victory, the civil conflict ended, and Caesar’s energy was absolute.

Initially of 44 BCE, Caesar elevated the variety of moneyers from three to 4, and the amount and number of denarii they produced within the first three months of the yr was monumental. This was most likely associated to Caesar’s preparations for a navy marketing campaign in opposition to Parthia that was scheduled to start on March 18; the conflict was canceled on March 15 as a consequence of circumstances past Caesar’s management.

In early January 44 BCE, the moneyers started hanging denarii portraying Caesar: these have been the primary Roman cash to present the portrait of a residing particular person. At the least a dozen extra sorts have been struck over the subsequent two months. The cash have been minted in large portions, and specimens are available at this time. Many are badly struck, most likely due to the rushed minting, however they are typically expensive as a consequence of their connection to Caesar. The coin proven right here, which is in distinctive situation and is well-centered and really strongly struck, bought for $55,000 in opposition to a $20,000 estimate at an public sale in January 2012.

The obverse inscription of this coin is an abbreviated model of CAESAR DICTATOR QVARTVM – “Dictator for the Fourth Time”. Underneath Roman legislation, a Dictator (from Latin dictare, a verb that means “to say repeatedly, to say, or to order”) was a Justice of the Peace appointed by the Senate throughout a time of nationwide disaster who held absolute energy and was immune from prosecution for any actions he took as Dictator; the appointment often was restricted to a interval of not more than six months. Caesar’s first appointment as Dictator got here within the autumn of 49 BCE when he was charged with conducting the elections for the next yr; he was elected Consul in these elections and resigned the Dictatorship after 11 days. He was appointed Dictator once more in 48, 46, and 45, every time for one yr or extra. He acquired his ultimate Dictatorship someday between January 26 and February 15 of 44 BCE, however this time he was appointed Dictator in Perpetuo – “Dictator in Perpetuity” – in impact, Dictator for all times.

Gaius Cossutius Maridianus, the moneyer who struck the coin proven right here, was the fourth of the 4 moneyers appointed in 44 BCE and the final to strike portrait cash, doing so solely after Caesar was named Dictator In Perpetuo. Maridianus was the one moneyer to incorporate the phrase “IN” in giving Caesar’s title as Dictator In Perpetuo. He all the time depicts Caesar with a veiled head in acknowledgment of Caesar’s position as Pontifex Maximus, the chief priest of the Roman state faith. This denarius isn’t as well-centered nor as properly struck as Mettius’ coin, but it surely does show one of many most interesting portraits of Caesar. This coin bought for $20,000 in opposition to a $15,000 estimate at an public sale in January 2019.

Gaius Julius Caesar was assassinated on March 15. The denarii that painting him are typically referred to as “the Cash that Killed Caesar,” supposedly as a result of they enraged the Senators who feared that this was a step too far towards restoring the hated monarchy (till that point, solely kings portrayed themselves on their cash). It’s potential, nonetheless, that they’d nobody accountable however themselves, because the Roman Senate itself might have licensed Caesar’s portrait on the denarius.

The fourth chapter of E-book XLIV of Dio Cassius’s Historical past of Rome lists the privileges and honors that the Senate bestowed upon Caesar. The Greek textual content is considerably troublesome, however one line particularly states that the Senate licensed Caesar to place his identify and title on the cash, and the language strongly means that this permission allowed him to position his portrait on the cash, as properly.

In any occasion, the Senate’s “outrage” was short-lived: inside two months of Caesar’s assassination, Mark Antony minted a denarius on which he portrayed himself, and it didn’t trigger an uproar. Two years later, Brutus and Cassius, the 2 most outstanding of Caesar’s assassins, have been minting cash that portrayed themselves, with Brutus going as far as to mint a denarius that each portrayed himself and boasted of his position in Caesar’s assassination.

The Story of the Roman Denarius: Conclusion

The Roman denarius arose amid the chaos and destruction of the Second Punic Battle when the coin glorified the state, culminating in a Civil Battle two centuries later with Julius Caesar’s portrayal of himself on his denarius. For the subsequent 300 years, the coin would glorify the boys who managed the Roman Empire.

* * *

Sources

A. Alföldi, A. “The Fundamental Points of Political Propaganda on the Coinage of the Roman Republic”, Essays in Roman Coinage introduced to Harold Mattingly. pp. 63-95 (1956).

Crawford, Michael H. Roman Republican Coinage. 2 Volumes. Cambridge. Cambridge College Press. (1974)

Dio Cassius. Historical past of Rome, Vol. IV (Books 41-45). Foster, Herbert B. and Cary, Earnest, translators. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard College Press. (1916)

Harl, Ok.W. Coinage within the Roman Financial system, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. Johns Hopkins College Press. (1996)

Harlan, M. Roman Republican Moneyers and Their Cash 63 BC-49BC. Seaby. (1995)

Houston, J. “Roman Coinage and the Triumviri Monetales from 139 BC to the Fall of the Republic”.

Lowes, Daniel. “Why do Roman Coins vary so much from 133 – 31 BCE?”, Grasp of Arts Dissertation at Newcastle College, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom.

Nousek, Debra L. “Turning Factors in Roman Historical past: The Case of Caesar’s Elephant Denarius”,
Phoenix 64, 3-4. pp. 290-307. Classical Affiliation of Canada. (Fall-Winter 2008)

Sear, David R. The Historical past and Coinage of the Roman Imperators 49-27 BC. London. Spink. (1998)

–. Roman Cash and Their Values: Quantity I: The Republic and The Twelve Caesars
280 BC – AD 96. London. Spink. (2000)

Woytek, B.E. “The Denarius Coinage of the Roman Republic”, The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage (W.E. Metcalf, Ed.). pp. 315-334. Oxford College Press. (2012)

Photos of cash are all courtesy and copyright of Classical Numismatic Group (CNG) LLC – www.cngcoins.com.

Picture of bust of Gaius Julius Caesar courtesy and copyright of Ángel M. Felicísimo underneath the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

* * *